Gilderhus's Diplomacy and Revolution, U. Randall's The Diplomacy of Modernization: Cola,nbian-American Relations, , looks at a less dramatic relationship, but one that is very instructive.
It was a relationship in whichMexico loomed large as an example that United States politicians, in both Republican and Democratic administrations, wanted to avoid. One revolution appeared to be enough, especially one which had serious implications for foreign, particularly American, investment; and the fact that no other Latin American country had a Revolution comparable to the Mexican upheaval might in part be attributed to the success of the policy emanating from the U.
Department of State in the post-Wilson era. Ogelsby The United States had become influential in most of Latin America bythe end of World War I; State Department career men considered the Latin republics "as a sphere of United States special interest which merited a more forward stance by the United States government than might be called for in other areas of the world.
But armed intervention was the least attractive and the most contentious means of achieving U. The State Department wanted to achieve U. Mexico posed a special problem for Wilsonian diplomacy. Having been in revolution since , Mexico came in under the rule of the counterrevolutionary General Victoriano Huerta, who clamped a bloody authoritarian rule on the country.
His stance encouraged anti-Huerta forces in northern Mexico led by Venustiano Carranza. In April , Mexican officials in Tampico arrested a few American sailors who blundered into a prohibited area, and Wilson used the incident to justify ordering the US Navy to occupy the port city of Veracruz. The move greatly weakened Huerta's control, and he abandoned power to Carranza, whom Wilson immediately recognized as the de facto president of Mexico.
One of Carranza's rivals, Pancho Villa, moved to provoke a war between the Carranza government and the United States by crossing the border into New Mexico on March 9, , and killing several Americans. The expedition failed to capture Villa but provoked a confrontation between the Americans and Carranza's forces in which men on both sides were killed and several Americans were captured.
Alarmed by the danger of war, Wilson reaffirmed his commitment to Mexican self-determination and agreed to discuss methods of securing the border area with the Mexican government. Nevertheless, the president had moved unilaterally in carrying out a signature foreign policy initiative.
Early in , when it began to appear that the United States could not avoid being dragged into the European war, Wilson withdrew all US forces from Mexico. The decision coincided with the publication of an intercepted message from Arthur Zimmermann in the German foreign office to the German minister in Mexico, instructing him to propose an alliance with Mexico against the United States if Germany and the United States went to war. He believed that the underlying cause of the war, which would leave 14 million Europeans dead by , was the militant nationalism of the major European powers, as well as the ethnic hatreds that existed in much of Central and Eastern Europe.
This incident triggered an explosion of demands and counterdemands. Within months, a complex set of entangling and secret treaties and alliances engulfed much of the world—due to the imperial holdings of Germany, France, and Britain—in war. With nearly one in every seven Americans having been born in the countries at war, Wilson believed the United States must remain neutral. Because the American economy was in a recession when the war began, however, and the British and French were eager to buy American products, the administration interpreted neutral duties in ways that tended to favor the Allies.
When Germany retaliated by using submarines to blockade the British Isles, Wilson refused to ban US travel on British or American passenger ships or to cut off arms sales to the warring nations, as the Germans demanded.
Wilson urged patience but demanded that Germany either halt or drastically curtail submarine warfare. Convinced that the president's policy would lead to an unnecessary war, Secretary Bryan resigned in June For a time, German concessions preserved peace, but Britain refused to abandon its blockade of Europe, and early in , Germany resumed its submarine warfare. The Germans calculated that the move would force the United States into the war but not before they could mount a massive attack on Allied forces while destroying the British navy.
After several American ships were sunk and the public release of the Zimmermann telegram outraged Americans, Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany. The Senate voted 82 to 6 to declare war on April 4, ; the House concurred on April 6 by a vote of to Jeannette Rankin of Montana, the first woman to serve in the House of Representatives, was among those who voted against the war.
He promised that the United States would fight to ensure democracy, self-government, the rights and liberties of small nations, and help establish an international peace organization that would end war forever. Wilson had proposed a program of military preparedness as early as He mistrusted allied war aims almost as much as those of Germany and Austria-Hungary, and wanted to use the peace negotiations to advance democracy and make government more accountable to the people.
Linking the allies, a series of secret treaties promised economic and territorial advantages to one another if they were victorious. After the Bolshevik Revolution, Russian leaders made a separate peace with Germany and published the allies' secret treaties. In response, Wilson made a series of speeches laying out his proposals for a new world order. He wanted to end secret alliances, arms races, nationalism, and economic rivalry. He advocated the spread of American institutions such as democratic government, broad suffrage, a capitalist economy, and a liberal bourgeois society to all European societies.
Finally, he insisted upon a worldwide peace organization energized by moral force that would ensure stability and an end to war. By contrast, the principal allied governments wanted a harsh peace that would break up the empires of Germany and Austria-Hungary, make Germany pay the bulk of war costs, and forcibly demilitarize the Rhineland, which was the basis of German industrial strength.
He strongly believed that his immediate predecessors had pursued a policy that would breed dislike of the U. The repeal of this act pleased England who was angry at paying tolls that U. The Jones Act promised the Philippines independence as soon as they were able to demonstrate that they had a stable government. However, this act proved to be less than successful, as the Philippines were not granted independence until 30 years later on July 4, In and , the Haitian people were outraged by the oppressive nature of their President, so they rebelled, literally tearing him to pieces during a bloody revolution.
In response, Wilson reluctantly sent troops to Haiti to protect American citizens and investments. He agreed to a treaty with Haiti in which the U.
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